Behavioral Psychology - Free Essay Example

Briefly outline Behaviourism. How does this theory aid in an understanding of disruptive behaviour, and what are the limitations of this approach? Behaviourism Behaviourism was the primary psychological paradigm of the early twentieth century and is characterised by the work of Watson (1913) and Skinner (1976). It is an approach to learning that focuses on observable and quantifiable behaviour and discounts the need to refer to mental processes (Pritchard, 2009). Knowledge is seen as a repertoire of behaviours that are largely passive, mechanical responses to environmental stimuli (Wray, 2010). In order to describe this knowledge, no reference to internal, mental processes are needed, and instead, someone is said to understand something if they possess the appropriate repertoire of behaviours. Behaviourists believe that the aim of education is to provide learners with the appropriate repertoire of responses to specific stimuli. Information, in the form of the appropriate behaviour for a certain stimulus, is transmitted from the teacher to the learner and learning is described as the acquisition of a new behaviour or the modification of behaviour as a result of teaching, training or tutoring (Woollard, 2010, p. 1). Behavioural responses are reinforced through the use of an effective reinforcement schedule which breaks down material into a sequence of small tasks, consistently repeats the material, and provides positive reinforcement to corr ect responses (Skinner, 1976).ÂÂ   As such, teaching methods includes techniques such as learning by rote, skill and drill, and question and answer tasks that gradually increase in difficulty, as these techniques are able to break down material into smaller pieces and allow for the consistent repetition needed for learning to take place (Wray, 2010). It is also believed that teaching should be carefully planned and systematic, regularly testing learners behaviours in order to monitor their progress and provide feedback on their learning (Cox, 2004). Behaviourism as a method of teaching and learning content has received considerable criticism in recent years and has generally fallen out of favour, not least because of its disregard of what goes on within a learners head and its rejection of the importance of the mental processes the learner engages in (Bartlett and Burton, 2012). However, in the field of behaviour management, behaviourism is still an important influence and a number of behaviour management approaches and techniques draw from this field of psychology. Behaviourist Behaviour Management From a behaviourist perspective, all behaviour is considered to be a repertoire of responses to a particular stimulus. Appropriate responses can be taught and learnt through the use of an effective reinforcement schedule. Therefore, from this perspective, disruptive behaviour is considered to be an undesirable response to a set of stimuli, and children can be taught more desirable responses through the use of reinforcement. Using this basic theory, behaviourism has had considerable influence on classroom management techniques and the encouragement of appropriate behaviours in the classroom. Using a behaviourist perspective, Merrett and Wheldall (2012, p. 19) recommend using a positive teaching approach to establish the context for appropriate classroom behaviour, characterised by the following five basic principles: It is concerned with the observable, i.e. behaviour; It is assumed that behaviour is learned; Learning involves change in behaviour; Changes in behaviour depend mainly upon consequences; Behaviours are also governed by the contexts in which they appear. This approach emphasises how appropriate behaviour can be taught and learned through the use of behaviourist principles. The teacher firstly identifies the behaviours that they consider to be desirable and those that are considered to be disruptive and undesirable and then communicates these rules to the learners. The teacher then rewards the learners who display the desirable behaviour, thus changing behaviour through showing the learners the positive consequences of displaying appropriate behaviour (Pritchard, 2009). Behaviour management approaches such as assertive discipline follow a similar pattern. In this case, a series of rules are established, there are rewards for those who follow the rules and consequences for those who do not, and these rewards and consequences are consistently applied (Canter and Canter, 1992). Current government guidelines for the management of behaviour in UK schools also adopt such an approach (DfE, 2011). Behaviourist principles can also be used to help understand disruptive behaviour once it occurs. From a behaviourist perspective, the understanding of disruptive behaviour does not require any consideration of the learners internal mental states or consciousness as it is believed that states such as belief, motivation, and satisfaction can be understood through an examination of the manifested behaviour (Woollard, 2010). Instead, an analysis of disruptive behaviour requires only an examination of the behaviour itself and the context in which the behaviour occurs with no reference to the learners mental processes. Behaviour is examined in terms of what comes either before or after the manifested behaviour using a model known as the ABC model, where: Antecedent: what happens in the context prior to the observable behaviour; Behaviour: describes what actually happens in observable terms; Consequences: what happens immediately afterwards Roffey, 2006, p. 8 It is believed that behaviour can be changed by either changing the antecedence to the behaviour or the consequences of the behaviour. Hastings and Wheldall (1996) numerate a number of advantages of this model of understanding disruptive behaviour. They suggest that it focuses the teachers attention on what the child actually does in the B aspect; the behaviour has to be systemically observed and recorded rather than simply labelling the behaviour under the general umbrella term of disruptive. Furthermore, the teachers attention is directed towards events within the classroom that s/he has influence over and thus, can change in order to effect change in the childs behaviour. Thirdly, it is suggested that the ABC approach emphasises that the childs behaviour takes place within a particular context and that their behaviour is both influenced by the environment and that their behaviour influences what happens next in the classroom. Finally, this approach provides links between the identification of undesirable behaviour, an explanation for why it occurs, and possible strategies for changing the behaviour. Any attempt to change behaviour using this model should begin with the questions What triggered the behaviour?, in other words, the antecedence, and How is this behaviour being reinforced?, in other words, an examination of the consequences (Welsh Assembly, 2010). Antecedents to disruptive behaviour include both issues that the teachers can affect such as task difficulty, the learners engagement with the topic, the classroom seating arrangement, and their relationship with the teacher, as well as issues that the teacher has little control over, for instance the effect of the learners home environment on their learning. The ABC model suggests that teachers can use a number of preventative strategies to avoid disruptive behaviour by eliminating the antecedents to the unwanted behaviour, for example, the teacher can enforce rules through p ositive statements, they can give praise that is behaviour specific or they can change teaching to engage the interest of the learners (Gulliford and Miller, 2015). However, despite the teachers best efforts, it is highly likely that some children may still display disruptive behaviour on occasions. In this case, according to behaviourism, it is important to address the consequences of the behaviour as it may be the case that the undesirable behaviour is being reinforced by the reaction the learner provokes. For example, the child may behave badly in order to gain the teachers attention as, for some children, any attention, even negative, is better than no attention. Every time the teacher reacts, they are reinforcing the childs disruptive behaviour. Alternatively, the child may be behaving badly in order to secure a reaction from their peers, and again, if this reaction is gained, the behaviour is being reinforced (Wray, 2010). Therefore, behaviourism advocates teaching learners new repertoires of behaviour and then reinforcing this good behaviour. Equally important, the undesirable behaviour should not be reinforced. Thus, reinforcement is the key aspect of this stage; however, it should be noted that, according to behaviourism, punishments and sanctions are not a part of the reinforcement schedule (Gulliford and Miller, 2015). Instead, positive reinforcement should be used as it is argued that pleasant experiences are more likely to help learners make the desired connections between specific stimuli and the appropriate response to that stimuli (Wray, 2010). Positive reinforcement can be given in three instances (LaVigna, 2000): a reward can be given when a learner chooses a preferred behaviour, known as differential reinforcement of an alternative response; a reward can be given when the learner chooses not to commit the undesirable behaviour, known as a differential reinforcement of the omission of a response; finally, a reward can be given when the lea rner displays a lower frequency of unwanted behaviour, known as a differential reinforcement of lower rates of responding. Disruptive and undesirable behaviour should be ignored as much as possible so as not to reinforce the behaviour (Wray, 2010). Limitations of Behaviourism While behaviourism continues to exert an influence over behaviour management techniques in todays schools, it has also been criticised for its limitations. Some of these criticisms derive from the incorrect application of the approach. Martella et al. (2012), for example, suggest that behaviourist approaches to dealing with disruptive behaviour such as assertive discipline are often misused in practice as teachers often neglect the praise components and move straight to the punishments. As such, bad behaviour is being reinforced through the negative attention the learners receive and good behaviour is not being reinforced. Other criticisms focus on the limitations of the approach itself. One major criticism of behaviourism is that it does not recognise the uniqueness of the individual (Vialle et al., 2005). In the educational context, Weare (2004) suggests that behaviourist approaches to behaviour management do not work equally with all learners, and they particularly do not wor k for those who may find it difficult to fit in with the behavioural demands of the learning setting because of reasons such as cultural differences, learning difficulties, and their emotional state. Therefore, it is argued that behaviour management should take a more holistic approach and should consider the childs unique personal situation, their developmental level, cultural and social background and personality and characteristics instead of focusing on rigid norms of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour (Kay, 2006). Similarly, the behaviourist approach is also criticised for taking a simplistic approach to behaviour, largely derived from experiments on animals. Learners are considered to be passive recipients who react to various stimuli provided by the trainer, and who have little free will of their own (Wragg, 2001). This view of humans does not take into account the complex nature of human learning, and in focusing on only the observable behaviour, the learners cognition an d thinking processes are ignored. Furthermore, it is suggested that behaviour management techniques that focus only on behaviour and do not consider the mental processes of the individual are unable to change the learners cognition (Garner, 2009). This is because there is a focus on supressing bad behaviour rather than a focus on teaching learners new responses and changing long-term behaviour problems (Kearney, 2007).ÂÂ   As such, it is suggested that behaviourist approaches have little long-term effect and do not teach learners the skills to respond to situations in more appropriate ways. Finally, behaviourist approaches to behaviour management have been criticised for their focus on rewards and it has been suggested that such a focus can reduce a learners intrinsic motivation to complete tasks (Vialle et al., 2005). In other words, the learner learns not to value learning and good behaviour for its own sake, but for the extrinsic rewards they receive for behaving well and completing the tasks the teacher gives them. As such, the learner does not become a self-motivated learner, but is reliant on the approval and direction of the teacher. Conclusion In conclusion, the behaviourist approach suggests a basic ABC model for understanding disruptive behaviour through an examination of the antecedents and the consequences of the behaviour within the context in which it occurs. This approach also provides a number of suggestions for strategies for avoiding disruptive behaviour and dealing with it once it occurs. It would seem that behaviourism is a commonly used behaviour management approach; humans tend to use reinforcement in their general behaviour and research has shown that the vast majority of teachers use behaviourist principles in their behaviour management strategies (Wragg, 2001). However, given the limitations of this approach, it would perhaps be useful for teachers to be aware of different approaches to behaviour management so that the needs of each individual student can be met. References Bartlett, S., Burton, D. (2012). Introduction to Education Studies, 3rd Edition. London: Sage. Canter, L., Canter, M. (1992).AssertiveDiscipline. Santa Monica: LeeCanterAssociates. Cox, M. (2004). Childrens learning. In Nicholls, G. (Ed.). An Introduction to Teaching, 2nd Edition, pp. 38-56. London: Routledge. DfE (Department for Education). (2011). Getting the simple things right: Charlie Taylors behaviour checklists. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/283997/charlie_taylor_checklist.pdf. (Accessed October 1, 2015). Garner, P. (2009). Special Educational Needs: The Key Concepts. London: Routledge. Gulliford, A., Miller, A. (2015). Managing classroom behaviour: Perspectives from psychology. In Cline, T., Gulliford, A, Birch, S. (Eds.). Educational Psychology, 2nd Edition, pp. 223-257. London: Routledge. Hastings, N., Wheldall, K. (1996). Effective classroom behaviour management. In Croll, P., Hastings, N. (Eds.). Effective Primary Teaching: Research Based Strategies, pp. 72-86. London: David Fulton. Kay, J. (2006). Managing Behaviour in the Early Years. London: Continuum. Kearney, A. (2007). Understanding Applied Behaviour Analysis: An introduction to ABA for parents, teachers, and other professionals. London: Jessica Kingsley. LaVigna, G. (2000). Alternatives to Punishment. New York: Irvington. Martella, R.C., Nelson, J.R., Marchand-Martella, N.E., OReilly, M. (2012).Comprehensive Behavior Management: Individualized, classroom, and schoolwide approaches, 2nd Edition. London: Sage. Merrett, F., Wheldall, K. (2012). British teachers and the behavioural approach to teaching. In Wheldall. K. (Ed.). The Behaviourist in the Classroom, pp. 18-49. London: Routledge. Pritchard, A. (2009). Ways of Learning: Learning theories and learning styles in the classroom, 2nd edition. London: David Fulton. Roffey, S. (2006). Helping with Behaviour. London: Routledge. Skinner, B.F. (1976) About Behaviourism, New York: Vintage Books. Vialle, W., Lysaght, P., Verenikina, I. (2005).Psychology for Educators. London: Cengage Learning. Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158-178. Weare, K. (2004). Developing the Emotionally Literate School. London: Paul Chapman. Welsh Assembly. (2010). Practical Approaches to Behaviour Management in the Classroom. Cardiff: Welsh Assembly Government. Woollard, J. (2010).Psychology for the Classroom: Behaviourism. London: Routledge. Wragg, E.C. (2001). Class Management in the Secondary School. London: Routledge. Wray, D. (2010). Looking at learning. In Arthur, J., Cremin, T. (Eds.). Learning to Teach in the Primary School, 2nd Edition, pp. 41-52. London: Routledge.

Alcoholics Anonymous A History, Its Implications And The...

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The Federal Reserve Open Market Committee Essay - 1560 Words

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How to make business presentation free essay sample

During a business deal, a very good presentation is urgently needed, moreover if the deal Is very crucial to our company or even to ourselves. When we offer our business partner our proposal, It Is very Important to us to present our proposal as impressive as possible. Many people or even company staffs still find this difficult and end up messing up the presentation. Why should this thing happen when actually there are some easy steps to overcome this problem?These are the steps to allow which Ill describe the details In each paragraph, first Is making the introduction, continuing with making the main body, and finally making the conclusion. In introduction, the first thing that you have to do is to greet your audience. For example, Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. Then, you need to Introduce yourself. This Includes your name, your position In your company and the topic of your presentation. We will write a custom essay sample on How to make business presentation or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page After that, it is better for you to give the audience the outline of your material, so that the audience knows all the points that you are going to explain. Next, Is stating the time you need, to explain the whole presentation. And the last thing to do In your Introduction Is giving your audience the question policy statement. So, you tell them whether you want the question during the presentation or at the end of the presentation. The next step is to make the mall body. In this part, you can explain the details of the outline that you have given In your previous Introduction part.It Is better for you not to read your presentation, but explain to them instead because explaining is a roof that you have already mastered your material well before coming in front of the audience. I also suggest you to use signposts along your presentation. Signposts are words that we use to notice the audience what chapter we are In. For example, In the beginning of the body or main section, we can use Okay, so lets start with the research. and for any new section we can use Right, so lets move on to the research. The final step Is concluding your presentation.You can start by reviewing your restoration from the very beginning to the very end. Then, you can emphasize again on the points that you think essential for your audience to fully understand. After that, you have to make a conclusion about your overall presentation. You can also thank people who helped during the preparation of your take Next, you finish off and start taking question from your audience If you choose to take questions at the end of your presentation. Toward the end, it is time to thank the audience for paying attention to the presentation. So, to sum up, It only takes 3 mall steps to make a good presentation. The steps are making the introduction, the mall body, and the conclusion. In each step we have to elaborate, in order to make the audience get the impression and fully understand the presentation. But, the most important thing about presenting your material is to our material if we have not understood our own material. So, it is actually not hard to impress the audience during our presentation if you follow these three steps.

The Top Athletes Looking for an Edge and the Scien Essays - Sports

The Top Athletes Looking for an Edge and the Scientists Trying to Catch Them. Behind the scenes there will be a high-tech, high-stakes competition between Olympic athletes who use banned substances and drug testers out to catch them ByChristie Aschwanden Smithsonian Magazine | Subscribe July 2012 D eeDee Trotter was on an airplane in 2006 when she overheard a passenger seated behind her discussing the steroids scandal. Federal investigators in the Balco case, named for a lab that produced supplements, would eventually implicate more than two dozen athletes for the use of performance-enhancing drugs, including Barry Bonds, baseball's home run king, and Marion Jones, the track-and-field star, who would end up in jail, stripped of five Olympic medals. "This guy was reading the newspaper and he said, Oh, they're all on drugs,'" recalls Trotter, a runner who won a gold medal in the 4 x 400 meter relay at the 2004 Olympics. She was furious. "I turned around and said, Heyexcuse me, I'm sorry, but that's not true. I'm a professional athlete and Olympic gold medalist, and I'm not on drugs. I've never even considered it. ' " Currently vying to join the U.S. team and appear in her third Olympics, Trotter projects a sassy confidence. "It really upset me that it's perceived that waythat if she runs fast, then she's on drugs. I hated that and I gave him a little attitude." That airplane conversation prompted Trotter to create a foundation called Test Me, I'm Clean! "It gave us clean athletes a chance to defend ourselves," says Trotter. "If you see someone wearing this wristband"she holds up a rubbery white bracelet emblazoned with the group's name " it means that I am a clean athlete. I do this with hard work, honesty and honor. I don't take any outside substances." As Trotter tells me this story, I catch myself wondering if it's all just a bunch of pre-emptive PR. It pains me to react this way, but with doping scandals plaguing the past three Summer Olympics and nearly every disgraced athlete insisting, at least initially, that he or she is innocent, it's hard to take such protestations at face value. My most profound disillusionment came from a one-time friend, Tyler Hamilton, my teammate on the University of Colorado cycling team. When he won a gold medal in the time trial at the 2004 Olympics, I was thrilled to see someone I'd admired as honest and hardworking reach the top of a sport that had been plagued by doping scandals. But in the days that followed, a new test implicated Hamilton for blood doping. His supporters began hawking "I Believe Tyler" T-shirts, and he took donations from fans to fund his defense. The evidence against him seemed indisputable, but the Tyler I knew in college was not a cheat or liar. So I asked him straight-out if he was guilty. He looked me in the eye and told me he didn't do it. Last year, after being subpoenaed by federal investigators, Hamilton finally confessed and returned his medal. The downfall of Olympic heroes has cast a cloud of suspicion over sports. And the dopers' victims aren't just the rivals from whom they stole their golden podium moments but every clean athlete whose performance is greeted with skepticism. Doping, or using a substance to enhance performance, is nothing new. Contrary to romantic notions about the purity of Olympic sports, ancient Greeks ingested special drinks and potions to give them an edge, and at the 1904 Games, athletes downed potent mixtures of cocaine, heroin and strych - nine. For most of Olympic history, using drugs wasn't considered cheating. Then, in the 1960 Olympics, Danish cyclist Knut Jensen passed out during a race, cracked his skull and later died. The coroner blamed the death on amphetamines, and the case led to anti-doping rules. Drug testing began with the 1968 Games, with a goal to protect athlete health. In addition to short-term damage, certain drugs also appear to increase the risk of heart disease and possibly cancer. The original intent of anti-doping rules was to prevent athletes from dropping dead of overdoses, but over the years the rules have come to focus just as intently on

Happy Are Those Who Lose Imagination Essays

Happy Are Those Who Lose Imagination Essays Happy Are Those Who Lose Imagination Essay Happy Are Those Who Lose Imagination Essay They no longer are phased by the bones that they walk all over of their fellow comrades, they fail to show empathy for those around them and they cannot even bring homeless to make Jokes to try and lift the spirits of themselves and their friends. This is all a result of being exposed to the front line for so long. At first, we are baffled at this statement made by Owen, simply because In other poems, he tries to portray a sense of compassion towards those that die at War. The attitude that Is conveyed In Apologia Pro pomade and Dulcet Et Decorum Est In particular Is one of disappointment at the public for not showing enough sympathy. In Apologia, Owen even redefines beauty as the bonds that are formed in confined environments like hose at War. Therefore, in terms of this form of insensitiveness Owen opposes his usual messages in Insensibility. In the middle of the first stanza, Owen makes a bold statement, a lone sentence; The front line withers. , implying that it resembles flowers shrilling and dying. He then brings us back to reality and reminds us that the truth Is not flowers that are dying, but real men. He goes against the poetic click © of the men being compared to flowers, and strongly focuses on actuality. : This could be where Owen first addresses the topic of Imagination In his poem. HIS unwillingness to promote men as metaphoric resemblances to flowers could be an example of how he thought imagination to be pathetic. However, the idea of one being better off without it is not really evident in this stanza because by highlighting the reality of men dying, he is causing no Joy but more upset if anything. The third stanza opens with Happy are those who lose imagination; the same type of opening sentence as the others. Here, Owen creates the image of men who have been weakened to the state where they have been reduced to robot like creatures, only carrying out their duties, having lost the ability to think for themselves. This insensibility Is extended to the point where they do not even feel pain as their wounds can not more ache. Being surrounded by the red of blood has no affect on them any longer as they have become so used to It. Their eyes are rid of all the pain around them and they do not contemplate It to be anything out of the ordinary. I nose men nave Eden Don unearned Ana weakened to ten pilot winner teen can even laugh [at] the dying. With this, Owen is saying that these reduced men and owe numb to their surroundings and happenings; as they are numb, they are able to withstand the pain and not be affected by it. In the environment of war, where happiness ceases to exist, the next best thing to feel, is nothing. When you feel nothing, you do not feel pain or fear and so one could interpret this lack of sadness, as happiness. However, it is only really in the first part of the stanza that Owen conveys this message where imagination is a burden to the soldiers. The idea of men who are emotionless and have no imagination is no more appealing than the image f corpses and so Owens message could be more complex than the one of soldiers being better off without imagination. It could agree that being numb is less damaging than being vulnerable but it also builds up the image of these men acting like zombies. It treats imagination like something that can cause unbearable pain, but something that we all should have as humans. The fourth stanza elaborates on the message that is created in the first three. It mentions the innocent men who would sing along while marching unaware of what lies ahead. In comparison to those are the men who have been trained and have to make decisions rather than to simply follow orders. Their naivety is almost something to new and so in this case, lack of knowledge and imagination is something that is a form of protection against harsh reality. It could be construed that Owen does actually new those who do not suffer from the troubled thoughts that he does but who instead have no imagination. However, in the last stanza, Owen criticizes this same insensitivity to surroundings and War on the home front. He describes these men as stones because of their lack of emotion and feeling for the men suffering. He may even be cursing them with death as stones could be taken as tombstones. Owens greatest condemnation of those on the home front is that unlike the soldiers, it was by choice they made themselves immune and so it was their conscious decision to pay no attention to the countless number of losses at War. In this case, he despises those who do not have, or choose not to have the moral capacity to empathic and use their minds to help. The irregularity of the poem takes the attention away from the structure and sheds more light onto what Owen actually wants to be read. The use of paraphrase works in the same way; words such as shilling and shelling, and rid and red bring the focus more onto the meaning of his words rather than the sound of them. In many of his poems, Owen addresses this criticism of the home front being ignorant by choice to the suffering at War which include Dulcet et Decorum Est and Apologia Pro Pomade Memo.

Airplane accidents causes and prevention Research Paper

Airplane accidents causes and prevention - Research Paper Example The improved aviation operations enabled the aircraft to go on extended flights which it did not before this Act because there were more accidents in the early nineteenth century and no detailed investigation was performed. However, it is still important to understand what the main causes of airplane accidents are and what steps can be taken to improve the aviation so that air accidents can be avoided. Most often, it is the human error that causes crashes (Mello et al., 2008). Sometimes, the pilots are very experienced due to which they get over confident and tend to be careless. For example, running out of gasoline while the plane is on flight is a result of human carelessness when he thinks that he has enough to fly to the destination. There are a lot of issues while flying that may demand more gasoline than usual. This makes the pilot force landing which is in no way out of danger. McCormick and Papadakis (2003, p.4) state that there are a lot of reasons that cause aircraft components to fail and become a cause for airplane accident. Either there is a fault in the manufacturing of a certain part or more load than usual has been placed on it that causes it to malfunction. The structure may have been poorly designed so as to stimulate stress concentrations which result in fatigue collapse (McCormick & Papadakis). The authors assert that: Any aircraft flying can be torn apart by pulling back hard on the wheel at an excessive speed and thereby producing loads exceeding the ultimate values for which it was designed. A pilot may fly through severe turbulence, like a thunder storm, thereby causing high loads (p.4). It may happen that the aircraft design is such that an average pilot finds it hard to operate it. The controls may be improperly placed inside the cockpit enhancing the probability that the pilot mistakenly gives an incorrect control input. Mechanical components like gearboxes and couplings may